Emulating numeric types

At this point we have a Number class that we can't actually do any math on!

Before proceeding, we should think about how we want to handle overflows. There are three obvious solutions:

• We can have infinite precision just like Python's int. However that would be quite boring - we'd be reinventing the wheel.
• We can raise exceptions whenever Number overflows, but that makes the API painful to use.
• We can wrap around the boundary of i32. This is the approach we'll take here. To do that we'll just forward to i32's wrapping_* methods.

Fixing our constructor

Let's address the first overflow, in Number's constructor:

from my_module import Number

n = Number(1 << 1337)

Traceback (most recent call last):
  File "example.py", line 3, in <module>
    n = Number(1 << 1337)
OverflowError: Python int too large to convert to C long

Instead of relying on the default FromPyObject extraction to parse arguments, we can specify our own extraction function, using the #[pyo3(from_py_with = "...")] attribute. Unfortunately PyO3 doesn't provide a way to wrap Python integers out of the box, but we can do a Python call to mask it and cast it to an i32.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
#![allow(dead_code)]
use pyo3::prelude::*;

fn wrap(obj: &PyAny) -> Result<i32, PyErr> {
    let val = obj.call_method1("__and__", (0xFFFFFFFF_u32,))?;
    let val: u32 = val.extract()?;
    //     👇 This intentionally overflows!
    Ok(val as i32)
}
}

We also add documentation, via /// comments and the #[pyo3(text_signature = "...")] attribute, both of which are visible to Python users.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
#![allow(dead_code)]
use pyo3::prelude::*;

fn wrap(obj: &PyAny) -> Result<i32, PyErr> {
    let val = obj.call_method1("__and__", (0xFFFFFFFF_u32,))?;
    let val: u32 = val.extract()?;
    Ok(val as i32)
}

/// Did you ever hear the tragedy of Darth Signed The Overfloweth? I thought not.
/// It's not a story C would tell you. It's a Rust legend.
#[pyclass(module = "my_module")]
#[pyo3(text_signature = "(int)")]
struct Number(i32);

#[pymethods]
impl Number {
    #[new]
    fn new(#[pyo3(from_py_with = "wrap")] value: i32) -> Self {
        Self(value)
    }
}
}

With that out of the way, let's implement some operators:

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use std::convert::TryInto;
use pyo3::exceptions::{PyZeroDivisionError, PyValueError};

use pyo3::prelude::*;

#[pyclass]
struct Number(i32);

#[pymethods]
impl Number {
    fn __add__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.wrapping_add(other.0))
    }

    fn __sub__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.wrapping_sub(other.0))
    }

    fn __mul__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.wrapping_mul(other.0))
    }

    fn __truediv__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match self.0.checked_div(other.0) {
            Some(i) => Ok(Self(i)),
            None => Err(PyZeroDivisionError::new_err("division by zero")),
        }
    }

    fn __floordiv__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match self.0.checked_div(other.0) {
            Some(i) => Ok(Self(i)),
            None => Err(PyZeroDivisionError::new_err("division by zero")),
        }
    }

    fn __rshift__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match other.0.try_into() {
            Ok(rhs) => Ok(Self(self.0.wrapping_shr(rhs))),
            Err(_) => Err(PyValueError::new_err("negative shift count")),
        }
    }

    fn __lshift__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match other.0.try_into() {
            Ok(rhs) => Ok(Self(self.0.wrapping_shl(rhs))),
            Err(_) => Err(PyValueError::new_err("negative shift count")),
        }
    }
}
}

Unary arithmetic operations

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use pyo3::prelude::*;

#[pyclass]
struct Number(i32);

#[pymethods]
impl Number {
    fn __pos__(slf: PyRef<'_, Self>) -> PyRef<'_, Self> {
        slf
    }

    fn __neg__(&self) -> Self {
        Self(-self.0)
    }

    fn __abs__(&self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.abs())
    }

    fn __invert__(&self) -> Self {
        Self(!self.0)
    }
}
}

Support for the complex(), int() and float() built-in functions.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
use pyo3::prelude::*;

#[pyclass]
struct Number(i32);

use pyo3::types::PyComplex;

#[pymethods]
impl Number {
    fn __int__(&self) -> i32 {
        self.0
    }

    fn __float__(&self) -> f64 {
        self.0 as f64
    }

    fn __complex__<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> &'py PyComplex {
        PyComplex::from_doubles(py, self.0 as f64, 0.0)
    }
}
}

We do not implement the in-place operations like __iadd__ because we do not wish to mutate Number. Similarly we're not interested in supporting operations with different types, so we do not implement the reflected operations like __radd__ either.

Now Python can use our Number class:

from my_module import Number

def hash_djb2(s: str):
	'''
	A version of Daniel J. Bernstein's djb2 string hashing algorithm
	Like many hashing algorithms, it relies on integer wrapping.
	'''

	n = Number(0)
	five = Number(5)

	for x in s:
		n = Number(ord(x)) + ((n << five) - n)
	return n

assert hash_djb2('l50_50') == Number(-1152549421)

Final code

use std::collections::hash_map::DefaultHasher;
use std::hash::{Hash, Hasher};
use std::convert::TryInto;

use pyo3::exceptions::{PyValueError, PyZeroDivisionError};
use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::class::basic::CompareOp;
use pyo3::types::PyComplex;

fn wrap(obj: &PyAny) -> Result<i32, PyErr> {
    let val = obj.call_method1("__and__", (0xFFFFFFFF_u32,))?;
    let val: u32 = val.extract()?;
    Ok(val as i32)
}
/// Did you ever hear the tragedy of Darth Signed The Overfloweth? I thought not.
/// It's not a story C would tell you. It's a Rust legend.
#[pyclass(module = "my_module")]
#[pyo3(text_signature = "(int)")]
struct Number(i32);

#[pymethods]
impl Number {
    #[new]
    fn new(#[pyo3(from_py_with = "wrap")] value: i32) -> Self {
        Self(value)
    }

    fn __repr__(slf: &PyCell<Self>) -> PyResult<String> {
       // Get the class name dynamically in case `Number` is subclassed
       let class_name: &str = slf.get_type().name()?;
        Ok(format!("{}({})", class_name, slf.borrow().0))
    }

    fn __str__(&self) -> String {
        self.0.to_string()
    }

    fn __hash__(&self) -> u64 {
        let mut hasher = DefaultHasher::new();
        self.0.hash(&mut hasher);
        hasher.finish()
    }

    fn __richcmp__(&self, other: &Self, op: CompareOp) -> PyResult<bool> {
        match op {
            CompareOp::Lt => Ok(self.0 < other.0),
            CompareOp::Le => Ok(self.0 <= other.0),
            CompareOp::Eq => Ok(self.0 == other.0),
            CompareOp::Ne => Ok(self.0 != other.0),
            CompareOp::Gt => Ok(self.0 > other.0),
            CompareOp::Ge => Ok(self.0 >= other.0),
        }
    }

    fn __bool__(&self) -> bool {
        self.0 != 0
    }

    fn __add__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.wrapping_add(other.0))
    }

    fn __sub__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.wrapping_sub(other.0))
    }

    fn __mul__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0.wrapping_mul(other.0))
    }

    fn __truediv__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match self.0.checked_div(other.0) {
            Some(i) => Ok(Self(i)),
            None => Err(PyZeroDivisionError::new_err("division by zero")),
        }
    }

    fn __floordiv__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match self.0.checked_div(other.0) {
            Some(i) => Ok(Self(i)),
            None => Err(PyZeroDivisionError::new_err("division by zero")),
        }
    }

    fn __rshift__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match other.0.try_into() {
            Ok(rhs) => Ok(Self(self.0.wrapping_shr(rhs))),
            Err(_) => Err(PyValueError::new_err("negative shift count")),
        }
    }

    fn __lshift__(&self, other: &Self) -> PyResult<Self> {
        match other.0.try_into() {
            Ok(rhs) => Ok(Self(self.0.wrapping_shl(rhs))),
            Err(_) => Err(PyValueError::new_err("negative shift count")),
        }
    }

    fn __xor__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0 ^ other.0)
    }

    fn __or__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0 | other.0)
    }

    fn __and__(&self, other: &Self) -> Self {
        Self(self.0 & other.0)
    }

    fn __int__(&self) -> i32 {
        self.0
    }

    fn __float__(&self) -> f64 {
        self.0 as f64
    }

    fn __complex__<'py>(&self, py: Python<'py>) -> &'py PyComplex {
        PyComplex::from_doubles(py, self.0 as f64, 0.0)
    }
}

#[pymodule]
fn my_module(_py: Python<'_>, m: &PyModule) -> PyResult<()> {
    m.add_class::<Number>()?;
    Ok(())
}
const SCRIPT: &'static str = r#"
def hash_djb2(s: str):
    n = Number(0)
    five = Number(5)

    for x in s:
        n = Number(ord(x)) + ((n << five) - n)
    return n

assert hash_djb2('l50_50') == Number(-1152549421)
assert hash_djb2('logo') == Number(3327403)
assert hash_djb2('horizon') == Number(1097468315)


assert Number(2) + Number(2) == Number(4)
assert Number(2) + Number(2) != Number(5)

assert Number(13) - Number(7) == Number(6)
assert Number(13) - Number(-7) == Number(20)

assert Number(13) / Number(7) == Number(1)
assert Number(13) // Number(7) == Number(1)

assert Number(13) * Number(7) == Number(13*7)

assert Number(13) > Number(7)
assert Number(13) < Number(20)
assert Number(13) == Number(13)
assert Number(13) >= Number(7)
assert Number(13) <= Number(20)
assert Number(13) == Number(13)


assert (True if Number(1) else False)
assert (False if Number(0) else True)


assert int(Number(13)) == 13
assert float(Number(13)) == 13
assert Number.__doc__ == "Did you ever hear the tragedy of Darth Signed The Overfloweth? I thought not.\nIt's not a story C would tell you. It's a Rust legend."
assert Number(12345234523452) == Number(1498514748)
try:
    import inspect
    assert inspect.signature(Number).__str__() == '(int)'
except ValueError:
    # Not supported with `abi3` before Python 3.10
    pass
assert Number(1337).__str__() == '1337'
assert Number(1337).__repr__() == 'Number(1337)'
"#;


use pyo3::PyTypeInfo;

fn main() -> PyResult<()> {
    Python::with_gil(|py| -> PyResult<()> {
        let globals = PyModule::import(py, "__main__")?.dict();
        globals.set_item("Number", Number::type_object(py))?;

        py.run(SCRIPT, Some(globals), None)?;
        Ok(())
    })
}

Appendix: Writing some unsafe code

At the beginning of this chapter we said that PyO3 doesn't provide a way to wrap Python integers out of the box but that's a half truth. There's not a PyO3 API for it, but there's a Python C API function that does:

unsigned long PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(PyObject *obj)

We can call this function from Rust by using pyo3::ffi::PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask. This is an unsafe function, which means we have to use an unsafe block to call it and take responsibility for upholding the contracts of this function. Let's review those contracts:

• The GIL must be held. If it's not, calling this function causes a data race.
• The pointer must be valid, i.e. it must be properly aligned and point to a valid Python object.

Let's create that helper function. The signature has to be fn(&PyAny) -> PyResult<T>.

• &PyAny represents a checked borrowed reference, so the pointer derived from it is valid (and not null).
• Whenever we have borrowed references to Python objects in scope, it is guaranteed that the GIL is held. This reference is also where we can get a Python token to use in our call to PyErr::take.

#![allow(unused)]
fn main() {
#![allow(dead_code)]
use std::os::raw::c_ulong;
use pyo3::prelude::*;
use pyo3::ffi;
use pyo3::conversion::AsPyPointer;

fn wrap(obj: &PyAny) -> Result<i32, PyErr> {
    let py: Python<'_> = obj.py();

    unsafe {
        let ptr = obj.as_ptr();

        let ret: c_ulong = ffi::PyLong_AsUnsignedLongMask(ptr);
        if ret == c_ulong::MAX {
            if let Some(err) = PyErr::take(py) {
                return Err(err);
            }
        }

        Ok(ret as i32)
    }
}
}